ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE SONNET IN ENGLAND – EDMUND SPENSER AND PHILIP SIDNEY

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE SONNET IN ENGLAND – EDMUND SPENSER AND PHILIP SIDNEY ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE SONNET IN ENGLAND – EDMUND SPENSER AND PHILIP SIDNEY

The Sonnet in England – Edmund Spenser and Philip Sidney

The sonnet, a 14-line poetic form originating in Italy, was introduced to England in the early 16th century and flourished during the Renaissance. Two of the most influential figures in the development of the English sonnet were Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser, both of whom contributed significantly to the evolution of the form, blending Petrarchan conventions with distinctly English innovations.

Philip Sidney and Astrophil and Stella

Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) was a courtier, soldier, and poet whose sonnet sequence Astrophil and Stella (written in the 1580s, published posthumously in 1591) marked a turning point in English poetry. Comprising 108 sonnets and 11 songs, the sequence explores the unrequited love of Astrophil ("star-lover") for Stella ("star").

Sidney primarily used the Petrarchan sonnet structure (an octave followed by a sestet, often with a volta, or turn, in thought) but infused it with a more conversational, psychologically complex tone. Unlike the idealized love of Petrarchan tradition, Sidney’s work reflects frustration, self-doubt, and irony. For example, Sonnet 1 begins with the famous line: "Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show," where Astrophil struggles to express his emotions authentically. Sidney’s wit and metrical skill helped establish the sonnet as a vehicle for personal and intellectual exploration.

Edmund Spenser and the Amoretti

Edmund Spenser (1552–1599), best known for The Faerie Queene, also made significant contributions to the sonnet tradition with his sequence Amoretti (1595). Unlike Sidney’s tormented lover, Spenser’s sonnets celebrate a more hopeful, reciprocal love, likely inspired by his courtship of his wife, Elizabeth Boyle.

Spenser employed his own Spenserian sonnet form, a variation of the English (Shakespearean) sonnet. While retaining the 14-line structure and three quatrains followed by a couplet, Spenser linked the quatrains with interlocking rhymes (abab bcbc cdcd ee), creating a flowing, musical effect. Sonnet 75 ("One day I wrote her name upon the strand") exemplifies this, blending themes of love, mortality, and poetic immortality. The waves erase the lover’s name, but the poet declares: "My verse your virtues rare shall eternize."

Comparison and Legacy

While Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella is dramatic and introspective, Spenser’s Amoretti is more harmonious and celebratory. Sidney’s influence lay in his emotional depth and rhetorical brilliance, paving the way for Shakespeare’s darker sonnets. Spenser, meanwhile, refined the sonnet’s structure, influencing later poets with his intricate rhyme schemes and idealized love themes.

Together, Sidney and Spenser helped establish the sonnet as a dominant form in English literature, adapting Italian models to express Renaissance humanism, personal emotion, and linguistic artistry. Their works remain foundational texts in the study of English poetry.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER

The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster: A Dark Exploration of Power, Corruption, and Tragedy

John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi (c. 1612–1613) is one of the most powerful revenge tragedies of the Jacobean era. Set in the Italian Renaissance, the play explores themes of corruption, tyranny, gender oppression, and the destructive nature of revenge. Through its complex characters and violent plot, Webster critiques the moral decay of aristocratic society.

Plot Summary

The play follows the Duchess, a young widow who secretly marries her steward, Antonio, against the wishes of her brothers—Ferdinand, the Duke of Calabria, and the Cardinal. The brothers, motivated by greed and a warped sense of familial honor, hire the spy Bosola to uncover her secret. When they discover her marriage, Ferdinand descends into madness, while the Cardinal plots coldly against her. The Duchess is imprisoned, tortured, and ultimately murdered, along with her children. Antonio is also killed, and the play ends in a bloodbath as the brothers and Bosola meet their own violent ends.

Themes and Analysis

Power and Corruption

The play exposes the corrupting influence of power, particularly within the aristocracy. The Cardinal and Ferdinand represent the moral decay of the ruling class—the Cardinal is a hypocritical churchman, while Ferdinand’s incestuous obsession with his sister reveals his depravity. Their cruelty stems from a desire to control the Duchess’s autonomy, reflecting the patriarchal oppression of the time.

Gender and Agency

The Duchess is one of early modern drama’s most compelling female characters. Unlike the submissive women of many Renaissance tragedies, she defies societal expectations by choosing her own husband. However, her independence leads to her downfall, illustrating the dangers faced by women who challenge male authority.

Revenge and Madness

Revenge drives the play’s tragic events. Ferdinand’s descent into lycanthropy (a delusion of becoming a wolf) symbolizes his bestial nature. Bosola, initially a cynical tool of the brothers, undergoes moral conflict but ultimately becomes an agent of retribution. The play suggests that revenge consumes both the perpetrators and the victims.

Death and Morality

Webster’s play is steeped in macabre imagery, from wax corpses to severed hands. The Duchess’s dignified death contrasts with the chaotic violence of the final acts, highlighting the play’s meditation on mortality and justice.

Literary Significance

The Duchess of Malfi is celebrated for its poetic language, psychological depth, and unflinching portrayal of human cruelty. Webster’s use of dramatic irony and dark humor intensifies the tragedy. The play’s critique of courtly corruption resonates with contemporary concerns about power and morality.

Conclusion

A masterpiece of Jacobean drama, The Duchess of Malfi remains a chilling exploration of ambition, revenge, and resilience. The Duchess’s tragic fate underscores the dangers of defying oppressive systems, while the play’s bloody conclusion serves as a grim warning about the consequences of unchecked power. Webster’s work endures as a profound commentary on the darkness within human nature.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE

BEN JONSON’S VOLPONE: A SATIRICAL MASTERPIECE (1590-1798)

Ben Jonson’s Volpone (1606) is a brilliant satirical comedy that exposes greed, deception, and moral corruption in early 17th-century society. Set in Venice, a city often associated with luxury and vice, the play follows the cunning Volpone ("the Fox") and his sly servant Mosca ("the Fly") as they manipulate a group of avaricious legacy hunters. Through sharp wit and exaggerated characters, Jonson critiques human folly and the destructive power of materialism.

Plot and Themes

The central plot revolves around Volpone’s scheme to feign a terminal illness, tricking wealthy men—Corbaccio, Corvino, and Voltore—into offering extravagant gifts in hopes of inheriting his fortune. Each character embodies a different vice: Corbaccio (a greedy old man) disinherits his own son, Corvino (a jealous merchant) prostitutes his wife, and Voltore (a corrupt lawyer) perverts justice. Their relentless pursuit of wealth highlights Jonson’s critique of a society obsessed with inheritance and social climbing.

The play’s major themes include:

Greed and Deception – Volpone and Mosca’s elaborate ruse exposes the moral bankruptcy of those around them. Ironically, their downfall comes from overconfidence, as Mosca betrays Volpone to claim the wealth for himself.

Animal Imagery – The characters’ names (Volpone, Mosca, Corbaccio, Corvino) reflect animal traits (fox, fly, raven), symbolizing their predatory nature.

Justice and Punishment – In the end, the Venetian court delivers harsh penalties, reinforcing Jonson’s moralistic stance against vice.

Dramatic Techniques

Jonson employs:

Farce and Irony – The absurdity of the legacy hunters’ actions creates dark humor.

Morality Play Elements – Unlike Shakespearean comedies, Volpone lacks redemption; vice is punished severely.

Classical Influence – Jonson follows Roman comedy traditions (e.g., Plautus) with scheming servants and exaggerated fools.

Historical Context

Written during the Jacobean era, Volpone reflects anxieties about wealth and social mobility. Venice, a cosmopolitan trading hub, serves as a microcosm of London’s burgeoning capitalist economy, where inheritance and exploitation were rampant.

Conclusion

Volpone remains a timeless critique of human greed. Jonson’s sharp satire, intricate plotting, and moral rigor make it a cornerstone of Renaissance drama, influencing later playwrights like Molière and Oscar Wilde. The play’s enduring relevance lies in its unflinching portrayal of corruption—a mirror to any society driven by materialism.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS

Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus

Christopher Marlowe’s The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (c. 1592) is one of the most significant plays of the English Renaissance and a cornerstone of Elizabethan drama. Based on the German legend of Faust, a scholar who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power, Marlowe’s play explores themes of ambition, sin, and damnation, reflecting the religious and intellectual tensions of the time.

Plot and Themes

The play follows Dr. Faustus, a brilliant but discontented scholar who, frustrated by the limits of human knowledge, turns to necromancy. He makes a pact with Mephistopheles, the devil’s servant, exchanging his soul for 24 years of unlimited power and pleasure. Despite warnings from the Good Angel and his own conscience, Faustus embraces his damnation, indulging in magical feats and worldly pleasures. However, as his time runs out, he is consumed by fear and regret, ultimately dragged to hell in a harrowing climax.

Central to the play is the theme of hubris—Faustus’s overreaching ambition mirrors the Renaissance ideal of human potential but also its dangers. His rejection of God’s grace in favor of forbidden knowledge reflects the tension between medieval religious morality and emerging Renaissance humanism. Marlowe critiques Faustus’s pride while also portraying him as a tragic figure, torn between repentance and despair.

Mephistopheles and the Nature of Evil

Mephistopheles is a complex figure—both a tempter and a sorrowful being who understands the horrors of hell. His presence underscores the play’s theological concerns: Faustus’s damnation is not just a punishment but a consequence of his own choices. The play questions whether Faustus is truly free or predestined to fall, a debate rooted in Protestant theology.

The Role of Magic and Spectacle

Magic in Doctor Faustus serves as both a symbol of forbidden knowledge and a theatrical device. Marlowe’s use of spectacle—such as Faustus summoning spirits or conjuring visions of Helen of Troy—heightens the play’s dramatic tension. The comic scenes, often involving Faustus’s servant Wagner and a clownish stable-hand, provide contrast but also reinforce the moral message about folly and sin.

Faustus’s Final Soliloquy

The play’s most powerful moment is Faustus’s final soliloquy, where he realizes too late the futility of his bargain. His desperate plea for time to stop—"O lente, lente currite, noctis equi!"—captures the terror of impending damnation. Unlike traditional morality plays, which offer clear moral lessons, Marlowe’s tragedy leaves the audience with a sense of unresolved despair, questioning whether Faustus could have been saved.

Legacy

Doctor Faustus remains a seminal work, influencing later texts like Goethe’s Faust and shaping literary depictions of ambition and the supernatural. Marlowe’s poetic grandeur, psychological depth, and exploration of existential themes make the play a timeless study of human nature’s darker dimensions.

In conclusion, Doctor Faustus is a profound exploration of ambition, free will, and divine justice, blending Renaissance intellectualism with medieval moralism. Marlowe’s tragic vision continues to resonate, reminding audiences of the perilous cost of unchecked desire.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE

Shakespearean Poetry: The Rape of Lucrece

William Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece (1594) is a narrative poem that explores themes of virtue, violence, and political upheaval. Written during the Elizabethan era, the poem draws from classical sources, particularly Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita and Ovid’s Fasti, recounting the tragic story of Lucretia, a Roman noblewoman whose rape by Tarquin leads to the downfall of the Roman monarchy.

Plot and Themes

The poem begins with Tarquin, the son of the tyrannical King Tarquinius Superbus, becoming obsessed with Lucrece’s chastity after hearing of her virtue from her husband, Collatine. Despite his internal moral struggle, Tarquin travels to her home and rapes her. The aftermath focuses on Lucrece’s anguish, her decision to reveal the crime, and her subsequent suicide, which sparks a rebellion that overthrows the Tarquin dynasty and establishes the Roman Republic.

Shakespeare delves into psychological complexity, particularly in Tarquin’s soliloquy before the rape, where he wrestles with lust and guilt. Lucrece’s lengthy lamentations after the assault highlight her despair and the irreparable damage to her honor. The poem critiques patriarchal notions of female purity, as Lucrece’s suicide is framed as a necessary act to preserve her husband’s reputation rather than solely her own.

Rhetorical and Poetic Techniques

Shakespeare employs rich rhetorical devices, including ekphrasis (the detailed description of the Troy painting), extensive metaphors, and elaborate wordplay. The poem is written in rhyme royal (a seven-line stanza in iambic pentameter with an ABABBCC rhyme scheme), which lends a formal, tragic tone. The imagery of light and darkness underscores moral corruption—Tarquin is frequently associated with night and shadows, while Lucrece symbolizes purity and day.

Political and Moral Implications

Beyond its personal tragedy, The Rape of Lucrece reflects on tyranny and justice. Lucrece’s violation becomes a symbol of political oppression, and her death catalyzes revolution. The poem resonates with Elizabethan concerns about morality and governance, subtly commenting on the consequences of unchecked power.

Conclusion

The Rape of Lucrece is a powerful exploration of sin, shame, and retribution. While its graphic subject matter is disturbing, Shakespeare’s poetic mastery elevates it into a profound meditation on human frailty and societal justice. The poem remains significant for its psychological depth and its influence on later literature dealing with trauma and political rebellion.