ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – BACKGROUND TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – BACKGROUND TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – BACKGROUND TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL

The Rise of the Novel: A Historical Overview

The novel, as a literary form, emerged as a dominant genre in the 18th century, particularly in England, with writers like Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry Fielding pioneering its development. However, its rise was influenced by a combination of social, economic, and cultural factors that shaped literary production and consumption.

1. Social and Economic Changes

The 18th century saw significant transformations in European society, including the growth of the middle class due to industrialization and urbanization. With increased literacy rates and disposable income, a new reading public emerged. Unlike earlier aristocratic patrons, this middle-class audience preferred realistic, relatable stories rather than classical epics or religious texts. The novel, with its focus on individual experiences and everyday life, catered to this demand.

2. Print Culture and Publishing

The expansion of the printing press and the rise of commercial publishing made books more accessible. Circulating libraries and serialized fiction in periodicals further popularized the novel. Authors began writing for profit, leading to the professionalization of literature. Epistolary novels, such as Richardson’s Pamela (1740), engaged readers through intimate, first-person narratives, while Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) blended realism with adventure, appealing to a broad audience.

3. Philosophical and Intellectual Influences

The Enlightenment emphasized reason, individualism, and empirical observation, which influenced the novel’s realistic style. Writers sought to depict human nature and society with psychological depth and social critique. Additionally, the decline of strict religious dogma allowed for more secular storytelling, exploring moral dilemmas without didacticism.

4. Literary Precedents

Before the 18th century, prose fiction existed in forms like chivalric romances, picaresque tales (e.g., Don Quixote), and travel narratives. However, these lacked the sustained character development and plot coherence of the modern novel. The 18th-century novel refined these elements, combining realism with structured narratives. Fielding’s Tom Jones (1749) exemplified this by blending humor, social satire, and a complex plot.

5. Gender and the Novel

Women played a crucial role in the novel’s rise, both as readers and writers. Female authors like Aphra Behn (Oroonoko) and later Jane Austen used the novel to explore women’s lives and societal constraints. The domestic novel, focusing on marriage and morality, became a significant subgenre, appealing to female audiences.

Conclusion

The rise of the novel was a product of historical circumstances—economic shifts, technological advancements, and intellectual movements—that created a demand for new forms of storytelling. By blending realism, psychological insight, and narrative innovation, the novel became a mirror to modern life, securing its place as a central literary genre.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – THOMAS GRAY’S “ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD”

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – THOMAS GRAY’S “ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD” ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – THOMAS GRAY’S “ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD”

Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard: A Reflection on Mortality and Equality

Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) is one of the most celebrated poems in English literature. Written in iambic pentameter with a melancholic tone, the poem meditates on death, memory, and the universal fate of humanity, regardless of social status. Set in a rural churchyard at dusk, the poem reflects on the lives of the humble villagers buried there, contrasting their obscurity with the grand monuments of the famous.

Themes of Mortality and Universality of Death

The poem opens with a serene yet somber description of the evening, where the tolling bell and the fading landscape evoke a sense of finality. Gray contemplates the graves of the poor, whose lives were simple and uncelebrated. He suggests that death is the great equalizer—whether one is a peasant or a king, all must face the same end. The lines, "The paths of glory lead but to the grave" (36), emphasize that worldly achievements are ultimately meaningless in the face of death.

The Lost Potential of the Rural Poor

Gray laments that many of the buried villagers might have had the potential for greatness had they been given opportunities. He wonders if among them lay a "mute, inglorious Milton" (59) or a "Cromwell guiltless of his country’s blood" (60). This reflection criticizes social inequality, suggesting that talent is not confined to the privileged. However, he also acknowledges that their simple lives were free from the corruption of power and ambition.

Memory and Legacy

The poem shifts to the poet’s own imagined death, where he pictures a "hoary-headed swain" (97) recounting Gray’s life to a stranger. This epitaph at the poem’s end reinforces the idea that even those who are not famous may be remembered with kindness. The final lines, "Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth / A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown" (117-118), suggest a quiet acceptance of anonymity, finding solace in nature and honest virtue rather than posthumous glory.

Conclusion

Gray’s Elegy is a profound meditation on human mortality, social injustice, and the quiet dignity of ordinary lives. Its universal themes and lyrical beauty have ensured its enduring appeal. By honoring the forgotten dead, Gray elevates their humble existence, reminding readers that every life, no matter how obscure, has value. The poem remains a timeless reflection on the fleeting nature of human ambition and the inevitability of death.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – WILLIAM BLAKE READING “THE TYGER”

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – WILLIAM BLAKE READING “THE TYGER”

WILLIAM BLAKE

Songs of innocence, songs of experience, Man’s struggle with a Maker, who is at once benevolent, and also jealous, and tyrannical - these were his themes, portrayed deeply in layers of both innocence and experience, questioning, and expressing. He portrays, the bliss of innocence, and childhood, and he is obviously very critical of his age that bound man, and shackled his expression of joy. His themes are romantic, which means Man’s striving to break free, and the conflicts with both the Maker, and the society around him. Yet, his poems are supremely crafted and shows all these themes in profound perception and wholeness, revealing both the innocence and experience.

 

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – WILLIAM BLAKE READING “THE TYGER”

William Blake Reading “The Tyger”

William Blake’s “The Tyger” is one of the most iconic poems in English literature, a fiery meditation on creation, divinity, and the nature of good and evil. Imagining Blake himself reading the poem aloud invites us to consider how his voice—both literal and poetic—might have shaped its reception. Blake was not just a poet but also an engraver, painter, and mystic, and his recitation would have carried the weight of his artistic and spiritual vision.

The Voice of the Poet

Blake’s voice, by historical accounts, was passionate and intense. Fellow artist and diarist Henry Crabb Robinson described him as speaking with “a certain solemnity of manner” and a “fiery glow of enthusiasm.” If Blake were to read “The Tyger,” his tone would likely be both reverent and fierce, embodying the poem’s awe before the sublime and terrifying power of creation.

The opening lines—

“Tyger Tyger, burning bright, / In the forests of the night”—

would resonate with rhythmic precision, Blake emphasizing the trochaic meter like an incantation. His voice might drop to a whisper at the questions—

“What immortal hand or eye, / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”—

suggesting both wonder and dread.

The Performance of a Visionary

Blake was known for his radical beliefs and rejection of institutional authority. His reading of “The Tyger” would not be a detached literary exercise but a performance of his mystical convictions. He might pause dramatically before the central stanza:

“And what shoulder, & what art, / Could twist the sinews of thy heart?”

His emphasis on “art” would hint at his own labor as an engraver, drawing a parallel between divine and human creation.

The famous line—

“Did he who made the Lamb make thee?”—

would carry a challenge, perhaps a raised eyebrow or a knowing smile, as Blake juxtaposed the gentle Christ-like Lamb (from his Songs of Innocence) with the ferocious Tyger. His reading would underscore the paradox of a God who creates both beauty and terror.

The Sound of the Engraver’s Craft

Blake’s method of illuminated printing—where text and image merged—suggests that his recitation would also be visually evocative. As he read, he might trace the imagined flames of the Tyger in the air, his voice rising with the imagery of fire and forge:

“What the hammer? what the chain, / In what furnace was thy brain?”

The metallic clang of those words would echo like a blacksmith’s workshop, Blake’s voice hammering each syllable into the listener’s mind.

A Prophetic Tone

Blake saw himself as a prophet, and his reading of “The Tyger” would likely feel like a revelation. The final repetition of the opening stanza—

“Tyger Tyger burning bright…”—

might be delivered more slowly, as if the question of the Tyger’s maker remained unresolved, lingering in the air like smoke.

Conclusion

Hearing William Blake recite “The Tyger” would be an electrifying experience—part poetry, part sermon, part artistic manifesto. His voice would bring to life the poem’s burning questions, its rhythmic power, and its unresolved tension between beauty and terror. More than just a recitation, it would be an act of visionary artistry, leaving listeners as awestruck as the poem itself.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – LATE ELIZABETHAN AND 17TH CENTURY POETRY GEORGE HERBERT “THE COLLAR”

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – LATE ELIZABETHAN AND 17TH CENTURY POETRY GEORGE HERBERT “THE COLLAR” ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – LATE ELIZABETHAN AND 17TH CENTURY POETRY GEORGE HERBERT “THE COLLAR”

George Herbert’s “The Collar”: Rebellion and Submission in Late Elizabethan and 17th-Century Poetry

George Herbert’s The Collar, published posthumously in The Temple (1633), is a striking example of the metaphysical poetry that flourished in the early 17th century. The poem captures the tension between spiritual duty and personal freedom, reflecting the broader religious and existential anxieties of the late Elizabethan and Stuart eras. Through its dramatic monologue form, vivid imagery, and sudden resolution, Herbert explores the struggle of a speaker chafing against divine authority before ultimately submitting to it.

Rebellion and Restraint

The title The Collar is a pun, referring both to the clerical collar worn by Herbert as an Anglican priest and to the restraints of religious obedience. The poem opens with the speaker’s outburst:

I struck the board, and cried, “No more;

I will abroad!”

This declaration of defiance sets the tone for a tirade against the perceived constraints of a devout life. The speaker laments lost pleasures—"my harvest," "wine," and "corn"—suggesting worldly desires suppressed by religious discipline. The irregular, free-verse structure mirrors his emotional turmoil, breaking from the strict formal conventions of earlier Elizabethan poetry.

Metaphysical Conceits and Imagery

Herbert employs metaphysical conceits, comparing spiritual struggle to physical bondage. The speaker asks:

Is the year only lost to me?

Have I no bays to crown it?

Here, "bays" (laurel wreaths symbolizing poetic or martial triumph) signify secular achievements denied by his religious vows. The poem’s imagery shifts from agricultural ("harvest") to martial ("rope of sands"), reflecting the speaker’s inner conflict. The rhetorical questions accumulate, creating a sense of claustrophobia, as if he is trapped in his own mind.

The Turn to Submission

The climax arrives when a divine voice interrupts:

“Child!”

And I replied, “My Lord.”

This moment of recognition—where the speaker acknowledges God’s call—transforms the poem. The brevity of the exchange contrasts with the preceding chaos, underscoring the peace found in submission. The collar, once a symbol of restriction, becomes a mark of belonging.

Historical and Religious Context

Herbert wrote during the rise of Protestant individualism, where personal piety often clashed with institutional religion. The poem’s tension reflects the broader Calvinist debates over free will and predestination. Unlike the public, ornamental verse of the late Elizabethan era (e.g., Spenser or Sidney), Herbert’s work is introspective, aligning with the metaphysical poets’ focus on inner experience.

Conclusion

The Collar exemplifies Herbert’s mastery of psychological depth and spiritual paradox. Its abrupt shift from rebellion to resignation captures the human struggle with faith—a theme resonant in an age of religious upheaval. By blending dramatic immediacy with theological nuance, Herbert bridges the late Renaissance and early modern periods, offering a timeless meditation on devotion and surrender.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – READING MARVEL : STUDIES ON TWO POEMS BY ANDREW MARVELL

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – READING MARVEL : STUDIES ON TWO POEMS BY ANDREW MARVELL ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 – READING MARVEL : STUDIES ON TWO POEMS BY ANDREW MARVELL

Reading Marvell: Studies on Two Poems by Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell (1621–1678) was a leading metaphysical poet whose works blend intellectual depth, wit, and striking imagery. Two of his most famous poems, "To His Coy Mistress" and "The Garden," explore contrasting themes—time and seduction versus solitude and contemplation—yet both demonstrate his mastery of metaphysical poetry.

1. "To His Coy Mistress": The Urgency of Time and Love

"To His Coy Mistress" (1681) is a carpe diem ("seize the day") poem in which the speaker attempts to persuade his hesitant lover to embrace passion before time destroys their opportunity. The poem follows a three-part syllogistic structure:

The Ideal (Lines 1–20): The speaker claims that if they had infinite time, he would adore her slowly, spending centuries praising her beauty.

The Reality (21–32): Time is fleeting—death looms, and her "quaint honor" will turn to dust.

The Conclusion (33–46): They must act now, transforming their passion into a fiery union before life ends.

Marvell employs hyperbolic imagery ("My vegetable love should grow / Vaster than empires") and metaphysical wit (comparing time to a "wingèd chariot") to heighten the poem’s urgency. The speaker’s argument is both seductive and philosophical, blending flattery with grim reminders of mortality. The poem ultimately critiques human vanity—while the mistress resists love, time marches on indifferently.

2. "The Garden": Nature as Spiritual Retreat

In contrast, "The Garden" (1681) is a meditative poem celebrating the tranquility of nature over human society. The garden symbolizes an Edenic escape, where the mind finds peace away from worldly pursuits. Key themes include:

Rejection of Human Ambition (Stanzas 1–3): The speaker mocks society’s futile struggles for fame, preferring the "delicious solitude" of the garden.

Nature’s Superiority to Love (Stanza 4): Even romantic love pales next to the garden’s quiet beauty.

The Mind’s Transcendence (Stanzas 5–6): The soul finds divine harmony in nature, where it can "Annihilate all that’s made / To a green thought in a green shade."

Mythological & Biblical Allusions: The poem references Apollo, Daphne, and Eden, reinforcing its themes of innocence and retreat.

Unlike the urgent tone of "To His Coy Mistress," "The Garden" is philosophical and serene, reflecting Neoplatonic ideals of spiritual elevation through contemplation.

Comparative Analysis

While both poems exhibit Marvell’s metaphysical style—complex metaphors, intellectual depth, and wit—they differ in tone and purpose:

"To His Coy Mistress" is persuasive and urgent, using time as a weapon in a lover’s argument.

"The Garden" is reflective and tranquil, advocating withdrawal from human folly.

Yet both explore human limitations: one through the lens of mortality, the other through the futility of worldly pursuits. Marvell’s genius lies in his ability to weave profound ideas into richly imaginative verse, making these poems enduring masterpieces of English literature.

Conclusion

Marvell’s poetry balances passion and intellect, whether in the seductive logic of "To His Coy Mistress" or the serene wisdom of "The Garden." Both poems reveal his philosophical depth and lyrical brilliance, cementing his place among the greatest metaphysical poets.