ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 : THE DUCHESS OF MALFI BY JOHN WEBSTER

The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster: A Dark Exploration of Power, Corruption, and Tragedy

John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi (c. 1612–1613) is one of the most powerful revenge tragedies of the Jacobean era. Set in the Italian Renaissance, the play explores themes of corruption, tyranny, gender oppression, and the destructive nature of revenge. Through its complex characters and violent plot, Webster critiques the moral decay of aristocratic society.

Plot Summary

The play follows the Duchess, a young widow who secretly marries her steward, Antonio, against the wishes of her brothers—Ferdinand, the Duke of Calabria, and the Cardinal. The brothers, motivated by greed and a warped sense of familial honor, hire the spy Bosola to uncover her secret. When they discover her marriage, Ferdinand descends into madness, while the Cardinal plots coldly against her. The Duchess is imprisoned, tortured, and ultimately murdered, along with her children. Antonio is also killed, and the play ends in a bloodbath as the brothers and Bosola meet their own violent ends.

Themes and Analysis

Power and Corruption

The play exposes the corrupting influence of power, particularly within the aristocracy. The Cardinal and Ferdinand represent the moral decay of the ruling class—the Cardinal is a hypocritical churchman, while Ferdinand’s incestuous obsession with his sister reveals his depravity. Their cruelty stems from a desire to control the Duchess’s autonomy, reflecting the patriarchal oppression of the time.

Gender and Agency

The Duchess is one of early modern drama’s most compelling female characters. Unlike the submissive women of many Renaissance tragedies, she defies societal expectations by choosing her own husband. However, her independence leads to her downfall, illustrating the dangers faced by women who challenge male authority.

Revenge and Madness

Revenge drives the play’s tragic events. Ferdinand’s descent into lycanthropy (a delusion of becoming a wolf) symbolizes his bestial nature. Bosola, initially a cynical tool of the brothers, undergoes moral conflict but ultimately becomes an agent of retribution. The play suggests that revenge consumes both the perpetrators and the victims.

Death and Morality

Webster’s play is steeped in macabre imagery, from wax corpses to severed hands. The Duchess’s dignified death contrasts with the chaotic violence of the final acts, highlighting the play’s meditation on mortality and justice.

Literary Significance

The Duchess of Malfi is celebrated for its poetic language, psychological depth, and unflinching portrayal of human cruelty. Webster’s use of dramatic irony and dark humor intensifies the tragedy. The play’s critique of courtly corruption resonates with contemporary concerns about power and morality.

Conclusion

A masterpiece of Jacobean drama, The Duchess of Malfi remains a chilling exploration of ambition, revenge, and resilience. The Duchess’s tragic fate underscores the dangers of defying oppressive systems, while the play’s bloody conclusion serves as a grim warning about the consequences of unchecked power. Webster’s work endures as a profound commentary on the darkness within human nature.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - BEN JONSON: VOLPONE

BEN JONSON’S VOLPONE: A SATIRICAL MASTERPIECE (1590-1798)

Ben Jonson’s Volpone (1606) is a brilliant satirical comedy that exposes greed, deception, and moral corruption in early 17th-century society. Set in Venice, a city often associated with luxury and vice, the play follows the cunning Volpone ("the Fox") and his sly servant Mosca ("the Fly") as they manipulate a group of avaricious legacy hunters. Through sharp wit and exaggerated characters, Jonson critiques human folly and the destructive power of materialism.

Plot and Themes

The central plot revolves around Volpone’s scheme to feign a terminal illness, tricking wealthy men—Corbaccio, Corvino, and Voltore—into offering extravagant gifts in hopes of inheriting his fortune. Each character embodies a different vice: Corbaccio (a greedy old man) disinherits his own son, Corvino (a jealous merchant) prostitutes his wife, and Voltore (a corrupt lawyer) perverts justice. Their relentless pursuit of wealth highlights Jonson’s critique of a society obsessed with inheritance and social climbing.

The play’s major themes include:

Greed and Deception – Volpone and Mosca’s elaborate ruse exposes the moral bankruptcy of those around them. Ironically, their downfall comes from overconfidence, as Mosca betrays Volpone to claim the wealth for himself.

Animal Imagery – The characters’ names (Volpone, Mosca, Corbaccio, Corvino) reflect animal traits (fox, fly, raven), symbolizing their predatory nature.

Justice and Punishment – In the end, the Venetian court delivers harsh penalties, reinforcing Jonson’s moralistic stance against vice.

Dramatic Techniques

Jonson employs:

Farce and Irony – The absurdity of the legacy hunters’ actions creates dark humor.

Morality Play Elements – Unlike Shakespearean comedies, Volpone lacks redemption; vice is punished severely.

Classical Influence – Jonson follows Roman comedy traditions (e.g., Plautus) with scheming servants and exaggerated fools.

Historical Context

Written during the Jacobean era, Volpone reflects anxieties about wealth and social mobility. Venice, a cosmopolitan trading hub, serves as a microcosm of London’s burgeoning capitalist economy, where inheritance and exploitation were rampant.

Conclusion

Volpone remains a timeless critique of human greed. Jonson’s sharp satire, intricate plotting, and moral rigor make it a cornerstone of Renaissance drama, influencing later playwrights like Molière and Oscar Wilde. The play’s enduring relevance lies in its unflinching portrayal of corruption—a mirror to any society driven by materialism.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE’S DOCTOR FAUSTUS

Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus

Christopher Marlowe’s The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (c. 1592) is one of the most significant plays of the English Renaissance and a cornerstone of Elizabethan drama. Based on the German legend of Faust, a scholar who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power, Marlowe’s play explores themes of ambition, sin, and damnation, reflecting the religious and intellectual tensions of the time.

Plot and Themes

The play follows Dr. Faustus, a brilliant but discontented scholar who, frustrated by the limits of human knowledge, turns to necromancy. He makes a pact with Mephistopheles, the devil’s servant, exchanging his soul for 24 years of unlimited power and pleasure. Despite warnings from the Good Angel and his own conscience, Faustus embraces his damnation, indulging in magical feats and worldly pleasures. However, as his time runs out, he is consumed by fear and regret, ultimately dragged to hell in a harrowing climax.

Central to the play is the theme of hubris—Faustus’s overreaching ambition mirrors the Renaissance ideal of human potential but also its dangers. His rejection of God’s grace in favor of forbidden knowledge reflects the tension between medieval religious morality and emerging Renaissance humanism. Marlowe critiques Faustus’s pride while also portraying him as a tragic figure, torn between repentance and despair.

Mephistopheles and the Nature of Evil

Mephistopheles is a complex figure—both a tempter and a sorrowful being who understands the horrors of hell. His presence underscores the play’s theological concerns: Faustus’s damnation is not just a punishment but a consequence of his own choices. The play questions whether Faustus is truly free or predestined to fall, a debate rooted in Protestant theology.

The Role of Magic and Spectacle

Magic in Doctor Faustus serves as both a symbol of forbidden knowledge and a theatrical device. Marlowe’s use of spectacle—such as Faustus summoning spirits or conjuring visions of Helen of Troy—heightens the play’s dramatic tension. The comic scenes, often involving Faustus’s servant Wagner and a clownish stable-hand, provide contrast but also reinforce the moral message about folly and sin.

Faustus’s Final Soliloquy

The play’s most powerful moment is Faustus’s final soliloquy, where he realizes too late the futility of his bargain. His desperate plea for time to stop—"O lente, lente currite, noctis equi!"—captures the terror of impending damnation. Unlike traditional morality plays, which offer clear moral lessons, Marlowe’s tragedy leaves the audience with a sense of unresolved despair, questioning whether Faustus could have been saved.

Legacy

Doctor Faustus remains a seminal work, influencing later texts like Goethe’s Faust and shaping literary depictions of ambition and the supernatural. Marlowe’s poetic grandeur, psychological depth, and exploration of existential themes make the play a timeless study of human nature’s darker dimensions.

In conclusion, Doctor Faustus is a profound exploration of ambition, free will, and divine justice, blending Renaissance intellectualism with medieval moralism. Marlowe’s tragic vision continues to resonate, reminding audiences of the perilous cost of unchecked desire.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN POETRY: THE RAPE OF LUCRECE

Shakespearean Poetry: The Rape of Lucrece

William Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece (1594) is a narrative poem that explores themes of virtue, violence, and political upheaval. Written during the Elizabethan era, the poem draws from classical sources, particularly Livy’s Ab Urbe Condita and Ovid’s Fasti, recounting the tragic story of Lucretia, a Roman noblewoman whose rape by Tarquin leads to the downfall of the Roman monarchy.

Plot and Themes

The poem begins with Tarquin, the son of the tyrannical King Tarquinius Superbus, becoming obsessed with Lucrece’s chastity after hearing of her virtue from her husband, Collatine. Despite his internal moral struggle, Tarquin travels to her home and rapes her. The aftermath focuses on Lucrece’s anguish, her decision to reveal the crime, and her subsequent suicide, which sparks a rebellion that overthrows the Tarquin dynasty and establishes the Roman Republic.

Shakespeare delves into psychological complexity, particularly in Tarquin’s soliloquy before the rape, where he wrestles with lust and guilt. Lucrece’s lengthy lamentations after the assault highlight her despair and the irreparable damage to her honor. The poem critiques patriarchal notions of female purity, as Lucrece’s suicide is framed as a necessary act to preserve her husband’s reputation rather than solely her own.

Rhetorical and Poetic Techniques

Shakespeare employs rich rhetorical devices, including ekphrasis (the detailed description of the Troy painting), extensive metaphors, and elaborate wordplay. The poem is written in rhyme royal (a seven-line stanza in iambic pentameter with an ABABBCC rhyme scheme), which lends a formal, tragic tone. The imagery of light and darkness underscores moral corruption—Tarquin is frequently associated with night and shadows, while Lucrece symbolizes purity and day.

Political and Moral Implications

Beyond its personal tragedy, The Rape of Lucrece reflects on tyranny and justice. Lucrece’s violation becomes a symbol of political oppression, and her death catalyzes revolution. The poem resonates with Elizabethan concerns about morality and governance, subtly commenting on the consequences of unchecked power.

Conclusion

The Rape of Lucrece is a powerful exploration of sin, shame, and retribution. While its graphic subject matter is disturbing, Shakespeare’s poetic mastery elevates it into a profound meditation on human frailty and societal justice. The poem remains significant for its psychological depth and its influence on later literature dealing with trauma and political rebellion.

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN COMEDY: TWELFTH NIGHT

ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN COMEDY: TWELFTH NIGHT ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN COMEDY: TWELFTH NIGHT ENGLISH LITERATURE 1590-1798 - SHAKESPEAREAN COMEDY: TWELFTH NIGHT

Shakespearean Comedy: Twelfth Night

William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night (c. 1601) is a brilliant example of his mastery of comedy, blending mistaken identities, romantic entanglements, and festive revelry. Set in the mythical land of Illyria, the play explores themes of love, folly, and self-discovery through its vibrant characters and intricate plot. As one of Shakespeare’s most enduring comedies, Twelfth Night exemplifies the genre’s conventions while subverting expectations with its nuanced treatment of gender and desire.

Plot and Structure

The play follows Viola, who, after being shipwrecked, disguises herself as a man named Cesario to serve Duke Orsino. Orsino is infatuated with the countess Olivia, who rejects his advances but falls in love with Cesario (unaware of Viola’s true identity). Meanwhile, Viola secretly loves Orsino, creating a tangled love triangle. The subplot involves Olivia’s drunken uncle, Sir Toby Belch, and his companions—Sir Andrew Aguecheek, Maria, and Feste the fool—who conspire to humiliate the puritanical Malvolio. The play culminates in revelations, reconciliations, and marriages, as Viola’s twin brother, Sebastian, arrives, further complicating the mistaken identities before order is restored.

Themes and Conventions of Shakespearean Comedy

Like many of Shakespeare’s comedies, Twelfth Night employs:

Mistaken Identity: Viola’s disguise drives the central confusion, leading to humorous and poignant situations.

Love and Desire: The play satirizes the excesses of romantic love, particularly through Orsino’s melodramatic longing and Olivia’s sudden infatuation.

Festivity and Folly: The title references the chaotic revelry of Twelfth Night celebrations, mirrored in Sir Toby’s subplot, where authority is mocked and revelry triumphs.

Resolution and Harmony: The ending restores balance through marriages (Orsino and Viola, Olivia and Sebastian) and the humiliation of the killjoy Malvolio.

Gender and Performance

Shakespeare’s comedies often explore gender fluidity, and Twelfth Night is a prime example. Viola’s cross-dressing complicates traditional gender roles, allowing her to navigate a patriarchal world while subtly critiquing it. Olivia’s attraction to Cesario (a woman in disguise) and Orsino’s lingering affection for his young male servant add homoerotic undertones, challenging rigid Elizabethan norms.

Malvolio as a Comic Antagonist

Malvolio’s downfall provides much of the play’s humor, but his treatment also introduces darker tones. His ambition and self-righteousness make him a target, yet his eventual humiliation—tricked into believing Olivia loves him—invites sympathy, complicating the play’s comic tone.

Conclusion

Twelfth Night embodies the essence of Shakespearean comedy: laughter, love, and the temporary disruption of order. Yet, it also offers deeper reflections on identity, desire, and societal norms. Through its witty dialogue, lively characters, and layered themes, the play remains a timeless exploration of human folly and the transformative power of love.