A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY H. G. WELLS
39.THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST
Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially and disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this period were fighting military autocrats, and the capital of the empire shifted with the necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy, now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre of interest to be a convenient imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most of the empire peace still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies continued to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental monarchs. Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes.
All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine and
Danube, enemies were now pressing. The Franks and other German tribes
had come up to the Rhine. In north Hungary were the Vandals; in what
was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths.
Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and
beyond these again in the Volga region the Alans. But now Mongolian
peoples were forcing their way towards Europe. The Huns were already
exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and pushing them to the
west.
In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of a
renascent Persia. This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid kings,
was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of the Roman
Empire in Asia for the next three centuries.
A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar
weakness of the empire. The river Danube comes down to within a couple
of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now
Bosnia and Serbia. It makes a square re-entrant angle there. The
Romans never kept their sea communications in good order, and this two
hundred mile strip of land was their line of communication between the
western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the eastern
Greek-speaking portion. Against this square angle of the Danube the
barbarian pressure was greatest. When they broke through there it was
inevitable that the empire should fall into two parts.
Map: The Empire and the Barbarians
A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and reconquered Dacia,
but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour. Constantine the Great was
certainly a monarch of great devotion and intelligence. He beat back a
raid of the Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no
force to carry the frontier across the Danube. He was too pre-occupied
with the internal weaknesses of the empire. He brought the solidarity
and moral force of Christianity to revive the spirit of the declining
empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at Byzantium
upon the Hellespont. This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened
Constantinople in his honour, was still building when he died. Towards
the end of his reign occurred a remarkable transaction. The Vandals,
being pressed by the Goths, asked to be received into the Roman Empire.
They were assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of
Hungary west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally
legionaries. But these new legionaries remained under their own
chiefs. Rome failed to digest them.
Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and soon the
frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came almost to
Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and made
a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the settlement of the
Vandals in Pannonia. Nominally they were subjects of the emperor,
practically they were conquerors.
CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
_Photo: Sebah & Foaillier_
From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theodosius the Great, and
while he reigned the empire was still formally intact. Over the armies
of Italy and Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in
the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth. When Theodosius died at the
close of the fourth century he left two sons. Alaric supported one of
these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, and Stilicho the other, Honorius,
in Italy. In other words Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire
with the princes as puppets. In the course of their struggle Alaric
marched into Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410 A.D.).
The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman Empire
in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians. It is difficult to
visualize the state of affairs in the world at that time. Over France,
Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had
flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished, partly
depopulated and falling into decay. Life in them must have been
shallow, mean and full of uncertainty. Local officials asserted their
authority and went on with their work with such conscience as they had,
no doubt in the name of a now remote and inaccessible emperor. The
churches went on, but usually with illiterate priests. There was
little reading and much superstition and fear. But everywhere except
where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and
such-like works of art were still to be found.
The life of the countryside had also degenerated. Everywhere this
Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been. In some
regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the level of a
waste. Roads and forests were infested with robbers. Into such
regions the barbarians marched, with little or no opposition, and set
up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles. If they
were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered districts
tolerable terms, they would take possession of the towns, associate and
intermarry, and acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the
Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who submerged the Roman province of
Britain were agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to
have swept south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they
replaced the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at
last English.
BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE
The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople by
Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal her shown; an interesting
example of early Byzantine art. The complete obelisk is seen on page
239.
_Photo: Sebah & Foaillier_
It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the movements of
all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they went to and fro in
the disorganized empire in search of plunder and a pleasant home. But
let the Vandals serve as an example. They came into history in east
Germany. They settled as we have told in Pannonia. Thence they moved
somewhen about 425 A.D. through the intervening provinces to Spain.
There they found Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes
setting up dukes and kings. From Spain the Vandals under Genseric
sailed for North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a
fleet. They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged
Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and
looting by Alaric half a century earlier. Then the Vandals made
themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other
islands of the western Mediterranean. They made, in fact, a sea empire
very similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven hundred
odd years before. They were at the climax of their power about 477.
They were a mere handful of conquerors holding all this country. In
the next century almost all their territory had been reconquered for
the empire of Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under
Justinian I.
The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar
adventures. But now there was coming into the European world the least
kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the Mongolian
Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such as the western
world had never before encountered.