A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY H. G. WELLS
53.THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS
While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the Western Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French and the British were extending the area of their struggles across the seas of all the world. The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of Europe into a vast and at first indeterminate fermentation, but that other great innovation, the ocean-going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the range of European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water.
The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlantic
Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining. The
Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the whole
of this new world of America. Very soon however the Portuguese asked
for a share. The Pope—it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress
of the world—divided the new continent between these two first-comers,
giving Portugal Brazil and everything else east of a line 370 leagues
west of the Cape Verde islands, and all the rest to Spain (1494). The
Portuguese at this time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward
and eastward. In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the
Cape to Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India. In 1515 there were
Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were
setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the coasts
of the Indian Ocean. Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller possessions in
India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to this day Portuguese
possessions.
The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid little
heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal. The English, the Danes and
Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking out claims in North
America and the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France
heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant. The wars of
Europe extended themselves to these claims and possessions.
In the long run the English were the most successful in this scramble
for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too deeply
entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective
expeditions abroad. Sweden was wasted upon the German battlefields by
a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant “Lion of the
North.” The Dutch were the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden
made in America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to hold
their own against the British. In the far East the chief rivals for
empire were the British, Dutch and French, and in America the British,
French and Spanish. The British had the supreme advantage of a water
frontier, the “silver streak” of the English Channel, against Europe.
The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least.
France has always thought too much in terms of Europe. Throughout the
eighteenth century she was wasting her opportunities of expansion in
West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy and the German
confusion. The religious and political dissensions of Britain in the
seventeenth century had driven many of the English to seek a permanent
home in America. They struck root and increased and multiplied, giving
the British a great advantage in the American struggle. In 1756 and
1760 the French lost Canada to the British and their American
colonists, and a few years later the British trading company found
itself completely dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the
peninsula of India. The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their
successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its practical
capture by a London trading company, the British East India Company, is
one of the most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of
conquest.
This East India Company had been originally at the time of its
incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea
adventurers. Step by step they had been forced to raise troops and arm
their ships. And now this trading company, with its tradition of gain,
found itself dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels,
but in the revenues and territories of princes and the destinies of
India. It had come to buy and sell, and it found itself achieving a
tremendous piracy. There was no one to challenge its proceedings. Is
it any wonder that its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even
its clerks and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with
spoils?
Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at their
mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do. It was a
strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown people seemed
a different race, outside their range of sympathy; its mysterious
temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour. Englishmen at home
were perplexed when presently these generals and officials came back to
make dark accusations against each other of extortions and cruelties.
Upon Clive Parliament passed a vote of censure. He committed suicide
in 1774. In 1788 Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator,
was impeached and acquitted (1792). It was a strange and unprecedented
situation in the world’s history. The English Parliament found itself
ruling over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating
an empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the
British crown. To the bulk of the English people India was a remote,
fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous poor young
men went out, to return after many years very rich and very choleric
old gentlemen. It was difficult for the English to conceive what the
life of these countless brown millions in the eastern sunshine could
be. Their imaginations declined the task. India remained romantically
unreal. It was impossible for the English, therefore, to exert any
effective supervision and control over the company’s proceedings.
And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these
fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two great
land conquests were in progress in Asia. China had thrown off the
Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native dynasty of
the Mings until 1644. Then the Manchus, another Mongol people,
reconquered China and remained masters of China until 1912. Meanwhile
Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness in the world’s
affairs. The rise of this great central power of the old world, which
is neither altogether of the East nor altogether of the West, is one of
the utmost importance to our human destiny. Its expansion is very
largely due to the appearance of a Christian steppe people, the
Cossacks, who formed a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland
and Hungary to the west and the Tartar to the east. The Cossacks were
the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of
the United States in the middle nineteenth century. All who had made
Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted
innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves, vagabonds,
murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and there made a fresh
start and fought for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar
alike. Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also
contributed to the Cossack mixture. Slowly these border folk were
incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as the highland
clans of Scotland were converted into regiments by the British
government. New lands were offered them in Asia. They became a weapon
against the dwindling power of the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan
and then across Siberia as far as the Amur.
The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
is very difficult to explain. Within two or three centuries from the
days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had relapsed from a period of
world ascendancy to extreme political impotence. Changes of climate,
unrecorded pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played
their part in this recession—which may be only a temporary recession
measured by the scale of universal history—of the Central Asian
peoples. Some authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching
from China also had a pacifying influence upon them. At any rate, by
the sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no
longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, subjugated and pushed
back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in the east.
All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spreading
eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found
agricultural conditions. Cordons of forts and stations formed a moving
frontier to these settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were
still strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no
frontier until she reached right to the Pacific....